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The Shadow of the Dalai Lama
– Introduction
© Victor & Victoria Trimondi
INTRODUCTION
Light and Shadow
For centuries after
Buddha had died,
his shadow was
still visible in a cave
a dreadful, spine-chilling
shadow.
God is dead: but man being
the way
he is for centuries to come
there
will be caves in which his
shadow is shown
and we, we must also triumph
over his shadow.
Friedrich Nietzsche
The practice and philosophy of
Buddhism has spread so rapidly throughout the
Western world in the past 30 years and has so
often been a topic in the media that by now anybody
who is interested in cultural affairs has formed
some sort of concept of Buddhism. In the conventional
“Western” notion of Buddhism, the teachings of
Buddha Gautama are regarded as a positive Eastern
countermodel to the decadent civilization and
culture of the West: where the Western world has
introduced war and exploitation into world history,
Buddhism stands for peace and freedom; whilst
Western rationalism is destructive of life and
the environment, the Eastern teachings of wisdom
preserve and safeguard them. The meditation, compassion,
composure, understanding, nonviolence, modesty,
and spirituality of Asia stand in contrast to
the actionism, egomania, unrest, indoctrination,
violence, arrogance, and materialism of Europe
and North America. Ex oriente lux—“light comes
from the East”; in
occidente nox—“darkness prevails in the West”.
We regard this juxtaposition of
the Eastern and Western hemispheres as not just
the “business” of naive believers and zealous
Tibetan lamas. On the contrary, this comparison
of values has become distributed among Western
intelligentsia as a popular philosophical speculation
in which they flirt with their own demise.
But the cream of Hollywood also
gladly and openly confess their allegiance to
the teachings of Buddhism (or what they understand
these to be), especially when these come from
the mouths of Tibetan lamas. “Tibet is looming
larger than ever on the show business map,” the
Herald Tribune wrote in 1997.
“Tibet is going to enter the Western popular culture
as something can only when Hollywood does the
entertainment injection into the world system.
Let’s remember that Hollywood is the most powerful
force in the world, besides the US military” (Herald Tribune, March 20,
1997, pp. 1, 6). Orville Shell, who is working
on a book on Tibet and the West, sees the
Dalai Lama’s “Hollywood connection” as a substitute
for the non-existent diplomatic corps that could
represent the interests of the exiled Tibetan
hierarch: “Since he [the Dalai Lama] doesn’t have
embassies, and he has no political power, he has
to seek other kinds. Hollywood is a kind of country
in his own, and he’s established a kind of embassy
there” (Newsweek, May 19, 1997, p.
24).
In Buddhism more and more show-business
celebrities believe they have discovered a message
of salvation that can at last bring the world
peace and tranquility. In connection with his
most recent film about the young Dalai Lama (Kundun), the director Martin
Scorsese, more known for the violence of his films,
emotionally declared: “Violence is not the answer,
it doesn’t work any more. We are at the end of
the worst century in which the greatest atrocities
in the history of the world have occurred ...
The nature of human beings must change. We must
cultivate love and compassion” (Focus 46/1997, p. 168; retranslation).
The karate hero Steven Segal, who believes himself
to be the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama, tells
us, “I have been a Buddhist for twenty years and
since then have lived in harmony with myself and
the world” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p.
24; retranslation). For actor Richard Gere, one
of the closest Western confidants of the Dalai
Lama, the “fine irony of Buddhism, which signifies
the only way to true happiness, is our own pleasure
to offer to each and all” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p.
25;retranslation). Helmut Thoma, former head of
the private German television company RTL, is
no less positive about this Eastern religion:
“Buddhists treat each other in a friendly, well-meaning
and compassionate way. They see no difference
between their own suffering and that of others.
I admire that” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p.
24). Actress Christine Kaufmann has also enthused,
“In Buddhism the maxim is: enjoy the phases of
happiness for these are transitory” (Bunte,
November 6, 1997, p. 21). Sharon Stone, Uma Thurman,
Tina Turner, Patty Smith, Meg Ryan, Doris Dörrie,
and Shirley MacLaine are just some of the film
stars and singers who follow the teachings of
Buddha Gautama.
The press is no less euphoric.
The German magazine Bunte
has praised the teachings from the East as
the “ideal religion of our day”: Buddhism has
no moral teachings, enjoins us to happiness, supports
winners, has in contrast to other religions an
unblemished past ("no skeletons in the closet”),worships
nature as a cathedral, makes women beautiful,
promotes sensuousness, promises eternal youth,
creates paradise on earth, reduces stress and
body weight (Bunte,
November 6, 1997, pp. 20ff.).
What has already become the myth
of the “Buddhization of the West” is the work
of many. Monks, scholars, enthusiastic followers,
generous sponsors, occultists, hippies, and all
sorts of “Eastern trippers” have worked on it.
But towering above them all, just as the Himalayas
surpass all other peaks on the planet, is His
Holiness Tenzin Gyatso the Fourteenth Dalai Lama.
Timeless, gigantic, respectful, tolerant, patient,
modest, simple, full of humor, warm, gentle, lithe,
earthy, harmonious, transparent, pure, and always
smiling and laughing — this is how the Kundun
(the Tibetan word means “presence” or “living
Buddha”) is now known to all. There is no positive
human characteristic which has not at one time
or another been applied to the Dalai Lama. For
many of the planet’s inhabitants, even if they
are non-Buddhists, he represents the most respectable
living individual of our epoch.
Many believe they have discovered
in the straightforward personality of this Buddhist
monk all the rare qualities of a gracious and
trustworthy character that we seek in vain among
our Western politicians and church leaders. In
a world full of evil, materialism, and corruption
he represents goodwill, the realm of the spirit,
and the lotus blossom of purity; amidst the maelstrom
of trivialities and confusion he stands for meaning,
calm, and stability; in the competitive struggle
of modern capitalism and in an age where reports
of catastrophes are constant he is the guarantor
of justice and a clear and unshaken will; from
the thick of the battle of cultures and peoples
he emerges as the apostle of peace; amidst a global
outbreak of religious fanaticism he preaches tolerance
and nonviolence.
His followers worship him as a
deity, a “living Buddha” (Kundun), and call him their
“divine king”. Not even the Catholic popes or
medieval emperors ever claimed such a high spiritual
position — they continued to bow down before the
“Lord of Lords” (God) as his supreme servants.
The Dalai Lama, however –according to Tibetan
doctrine at least — himself appears and acts as
the “Highest”. In him is revealed the mystic figure
of ADI BUDDHA (the Supreme Buddha); he is a religious
ideal in flesh and blood. In some circles, enormous
hopes are placed in the Kundun
as the new Redeemer himself. Not just Tibetans
and Mongolians, many Taiwan Chinese and Westerners
also see him as a latterday Messiah. [1]
However human the monk from Dharamsala
(India) may appear, his person is surrounded by
the most occult speculations. Many who have met
him believe they have encountered the supernatural.
In the case of the “divine king” who has descended
to mankind from the roof of the world, that which
was denied Moses—namely, to glimpse the countenance
of God (Yahweh)—has become possible
for pious Buddhists; and unlike Yahweh this countenance
shows no wrath, but smiles graciously and warmly
instead.
The esoteric pathos in the characterization
of the Dalai Lama has long since transcended the
boundaries of Buddhist insider groups. It is the
famous show business personalities and even articles
in the “respectable” Western press who now express
the mystic flair of the Kundun in weighty exclamations:
“The fascination is the search for the third eye”,
Melissa Mathison, scriptwriter for Martin Scorsese’s
film, Kundun, writes in the Herald Tribune. “Americans
are hoping for some sort of magical door into
the mystical, thinking that there’s some mysterious
reason for things, a cosmic explanation. Tibet
offers the most extravagant expression of the
mystical, and when people meet His Holiness, you
can see on their faces that they’re hoping to
get this hit that will transcend their lives,
take them someplace else” (Herald Tribune, March 20,
1997).
Nevertheless — and this is another
magical fairytale — the divine king’s omnipotent
role combines well with the monastic modesty and
simplicity he exhibits. It is precisely this fascinating
combination of the supreme (“divine king”) and
the almighty with the lowliest (“mendicant”) and
weakest that makes the Dalai Lama so appealing
for many — clear, understandable words, a gracious
smile, a simple robe, plain sandals, and behind
all this the omnipotence of the divine. With his
constantly repeated statement — “I ... see myself
first as a man and a Tibetan who has made the
decision to become a Buddhist monk” — His Holiness
has conquered the hearts of the West (Dalai Lama
XIV, 1993a, p. 7). We can believe in such a person,
we can find refuge in him, from him we learn about
the wisdom of life and death. [2]
A similar reverse effect is found
in another of the Kundun’s favorite sayings,
that the institution of the Dalai Lama could become
superfluous in the future. “Perhaps it would really
be good if I were the last!” (Levenson, 1990,
p. 366). Such admissions of his own superfluity
bring tears to people’s eyes and are only surpassed
by the prognosis of the “divine king” that in
his next life he will probably be reincarnated
as an insect in order to help this lower form
of life as an “insect messiah”. In the wake of
such heartrending prophecies no-one would wish
for anything more than that the institution of
the Dalai Lama might last for ever.
The political impotence of the
country the hierarch had to flee has a similarly
powerful and disturbing effect. The image of the
innocent, peaceful, spiritual, defenseless, and
tiny Tibet, suppressed and humiliated by the merciless,
inhumane, and materialistic Chinese giant has
elevated the “Land of Snows” and its monastic
king to the status of a worldwide symbol of “pacifist
resistance”. The more Tibet and its “ecclesiastical
king” are threatened, the more his spiritual authority
increases and the more the Kundun becomes an international
moral authority. He has succeeded in the impossible
task of drawing strength from his weakness.
The numerous speeches of the Fourteenth
Dalai Lama, his interviews, statements, writings,
biographies, books, and his countless introductions
and forewords to the texts of others deal almost
exclusively with topics like compassion, kindness,
sincerity, love, nonviolence, human rights, ecological
visions, professions of democracy, religious tolerance,
inner and outer spirituality, the blessings of
science, world peace, and so on. It would take
a true villain to not agree totally with what
he has said and written. Training consciousness,
achieving spiritual peace, cultivating inner contentment,
fostering satisfaction, practicing awareness,
eliminating egoism, helping others — what responsible
person could fail to identify with this? Who doesn’t
long for flawless love, clear intellect, generosity,
and enlightenment?
Within Western civilization, the
Dalai Lama appears as the purest light. He represents
— according to former President Jimmy Carter —
a new type of world leader, who has placed the
principles of peace and compassion at the center
of his politics, and who, with his kind and winning
nature, has shown us all how the hardest blows
of fate can be borne with perseverance and patience.
By now he symbolizes human dignity and global
responsibility for millions. Up until very recently
hardly anyone, with the exception of his archenemies,
the Chinese communists, has dared to criticize
this impotent/omnipotent luminary. But then, out
of the blue in 1996, dark clouds began to gather
over the bright aura of the “living Buddha”.
Charges, accusations, suspicions
and incriminations began to appear in the media.
At first on the Internet, then in isolated press
reports, and finally in television programs (see
Panorama
on ARD [Germany], November 20, 1997 and 10 vor 10 on SF1 [Switzerland],
January 5-8, 1998). At the same time as the Hollywood
stars were erecting a media altar for their Tibetan
god, the public attacks on the Dalai Lama were
becoming more frequent. Even for a mundane politician
the catalogue of accusations would have been embarrassing,
but for a divine king they were horrendous. And
on this occasion the attacks came not from the
Chinese camp but from within his own ranks.
The following serious charges are
leveled in an open letter to the Kundun supposedly written
by Tibetans in exile which criticizes the “despotism”
of the hierarch: “The cause [of the despotism]
is the invisible disease which is still there
and which develops immediately if met with various
conditions. And what is this disease? It is your
clinging to your own power. It is a fact that
even at that time if someone would have used democracy
on you, you would not have been able to accept
it. ... Your Holiness, you wish to be a great
leader, but you do not know that in order to fulfill
the wish, a ‘political Bodhisattva vow’ is required.
So you entered instead the wrong ‘political path
of accumulation’ (tsog
lam) and that has lead you on a continuously
wrong path. You believed that in order to be a
greater leader you had to secure your own position
first of all, and whenever any opposition against
you arose you had to defend yourself, and this
has become contagious. ... Moreover, to challenge
lamas you have used religion for your own aim.
To that purpose you had to develop the Tibetan
people’s blind faith. ... For instance, you started
the politics of public Kalachakra initiations.
[3] Normally the Kalachakra initiation is not
given in public. Then you started to use it continuously
in a big way for your politics. The result is
that now the Tibetan people have returned to exactly
the same muddy and dirty mixing of politics and
religion of lamas which you yourself had so precisely
criticized in earlier times. ... You have made
the Tibetans into donkeys. You can force them
to go here and there as you like. In your words
you always say that you want to be Ghandi but
in your action you are like a religious fundamentalist
who uses religious faith for political purposes.
Your image is the Dalai Lama, your mouth is Mahatma
Ghandi and your heart is like that of a religious
dictator. You are a deceiver and it is very sad
that on the top of the suffering that they already
have the Tibetan people have a leader like you.
Tibetans have become fanatics. They say that the
Dalai Lama is more important than the principle
of Tibet. ... Please, if you feel like being like
Gandhi, do not turn the Tibetan situation in the
church dominated style of 17th century Europe”
(Sam, May 27, 1997 - Newsgroup 16).
The list of accusations goes on
and on. Here we present some of the charges raised
against the Kundun since 1997 which we
treat in more detail in this study: association
with the Japanese “poison gas guru” Shoko Asahara
(the “Asahara affair”); violent suppression of
the free expression of religion within his own
ranks (the “Shugden affair”); the splitting of
the other Buddhist sects (the “Karmapa affair”);
frequent sexual abuse of women by Tibetan lamas
(“Sogyal Rinpoche and June Campbell affairs”);intolerance
towards homosexuals; involvement in a ritual murder
(the events of February 4, 1997); links to National
Socialism (the “Heinrich Harrer affair”); nepotism
(the “Yabshi affair”); selling out his own country
to the Chinese(renunciation of Tibetan sovereignty);
political lies; rewriting history; and much more.
Overnight the god has become a demon. [4]
And all of a sudden Westerners
are beginning to ask themselves whether the king
of light from the Himalayas might not have a monstrous
shadow. What we mean by the Dalai Lama’s “shadow”
is the possibility of a dark, murky, and “dirty”
side to both his personality and politicoreligious
office in contrast to the pure and brilliant figure
he cuts as the “greatest living hero of peace
in our century” in the captivated awareness of
millions.
For most people who have come to
know him personally or via the media, such nocturnal
dimensions to His Holiness are unimaginable. The
possibility would not even occur to them, since
the Kundun has grasped how to effectively conceal
the threatening and demonic aspects of Tibetan
Buddhism and the many dark chapters in the history
of Tibet. Up until 1996 he had succeeded –the
poorly grounded Chinese critique aside — in playing
the shining hero on the world stage.
Plato’s cave
The shadow is the “other side”
of a person, his “hidden face”, the shadows are
his “occult depths”. Psychoanalysis teaches us
that there are four ways of dealing with our shadow:
we can deny it, suppress it, project it onto other
people, or integrate it.
But the topic of the shadow does
not just have a psychological dimension; ever
since Plato’s famous analogy of the cave it has
become one of the favorite motifs of Western philosophy.
In his Politeia (The State), Plato
tells of an
“unenlightened” people who inhabit a cave
with their backs to the entrance. Outside shines
the light of eternal and true reality, but as
the people have turned their backs to it, all
they see are the shadows
of reality which flit sketchily across the
walls of the cave before their eyes. Their human
attentiveness is magically captivated by this
shadowy world and they thus perceive only dreams
and illusions, never higher reality itself. Should
a cave dweller one day manage to escape this dusky
dwelling, he would recognize that he had been
living in a world of illusions.
This parable was adapted by Friedrich
Nietzsche in Aphorism 108 of his Fröhliche Wissenschaft [The
Gay Science] and — of interest here — linked to
the figure of Buddha: “For centuries after Buddha
had died,” Nietzsche wrote, “his shadow was still
visible in a cave — a dreadful, spine-chilling
shadow. God is dead: but man being the way he
is, for centuries to come there will be caves
in which his shadow is shown — and we — we must
also triumph over his shadow”. [5]
This aphorism encourages us to
speculate about the Dalai Lama. He is, after all,
worshipped as “God” or as a “living Buddha” (Kundun), as a supreme enlightened
being. But, we could argue with Nietzsche, the
true Buddha (“God”) is dead. Does this make the
figure of the Dalai Lama nothing but a shadow?
Are pseudo-dogmas, pseudo-rituals, and pseudo-mysteries
all that remain of the original Buddhism? Did
the historical Buddha Shakyamuni leave us with
his “dreadful shadow” (the Dalai Lama) and have
we been challenged to liberate ourselves from
him? However, we could also speculate as to whether
people perceive only the Dalai Lama’s silhouette
since they still live in the cave of an unenlightened
consciousness. If they were to leave this world
of illusion, they might experience the Kundun as the supreme luminary
and Supreme Buddha (ADI BUDDHA).
In our study of the Dalai Lama
we offer concrete answers to these and similar
metaphysical questions. To do this, however, we
must lead our readers into (Nietzsche’s) cave,
where the “dreadful shadow” of the Kundun (a “living Buddha”)
appears on the wall. Up until now this cave has
been closed to the public and could not be entered
by the uninitiated.
Incidentally, every Tibetan temple
possesses such an eerie room of shadows. Beside
the various sacred chambers in which smiling Buddha
statues emit peace and composure there are secret
rooms known as gokhangs which can only be
entered by a chosen few. In the dim light of flickering,
half-drowned butter lamps, surrounded by rusty
weapons, stuffed animals, and mummified body parts,
the Tibetan terror gods reside in the gokhang.
Here, the inhabitants of a violent and monstrous
realm of darkness are assembled. In a figurative
sense the gokhang symbolizes the dark
ritualism of Lamaism and Tibet’s hidden history
of violence. In order to truly get to know the
Dalai Lama (the “living Buddha”) we must first
descend into the “cave” (the gokhang) and there conduct
a speleology of his religion.
“Realpolitik” and the “Politics
of Symbols”
Our study is divided into two parts.
The first contain a depiction and critique of
the religious foundations of Tibetan (“Tantric”)
Buddhism and is entitled Ritual as Politics. The second
part (Politics
as Ritual) examines the power politics of
the Kundun (Dalai Lama) and its
historical preconditions. The relationship between
political power and religion is thus central to
our book.
In ancient societies (like that
of Tibet), everything that happens in the everyday
world — from acts of nature to major political
events to quotidian occurrences — is the expression
of transcendent powers and forces working behind
the scenes. Mortals do not determine their own
fates; rather they are instruments in the hands
of “gods” and “demons”. If we wish to gain any
understanding at all of the Dalai Lama’s “secular”
politics, it must be derived from this atavistic
perspective which permeates the traditional cultural
legacy of Tibetan Buddhism. For the mysteries
that he administers (in which the “gods” make
their appearances) form the foundations of his
political vision and decision making. State and
religion, ritual and politics are inseparable
for him.
What, however, distinguishes a
“politics of symbols” from “realpolitik”? Both are concerned
with power, but the methods for achieving and
maintaining power differ. In realpolitik we are dealing
with facts that are both caused and manipulated
by people. Here the protagonists are politicians,
generals, CEOs, leaders of opinion, cultural luminaries,
etc. The methods through which power is exercised
include force, war, revolution, legal systems,
money, rhetoric, propaganda, public discussions,
and bribery.
In the symbolic political world,
however, we encounter “supernatural” energy fields,
the “gods” and “demons”. The secular protagonists
in events are still human beings such as ecclesiastical
dignitaries, priests, magicians, gurus, yogis,
and shamans. But they all see themselves as servants
of some type of superior divine will, or, transcending
their humanity they themselves become “gods”,
as in the case of the Dalai Lama. His exercise
of power thus not only involves worldly techniques
but also the manipulation of symbols in rituals
and magic. For him, symbolic images and ritual
acts are not simply signs or aesthetic acts but
rather instruments with which to activate the
gods and to influence people’s awareness. His
political reality is determined by a “metaphysical
detour” via the mysteries. [6]
This interweaving of historical
and symbolic events leads to the seemingly fantastic
metapolitics of the Tibetans. Lamaism believes
it can influence the course of history not just
in Tibet but for the entire planet through its
system of rituals and invocations, through magic
practices and concentration exercises. The result
is an atavistic mix of magic and politics. Rather
than being determined by parliament and the Tibetan
government in exile, political decisions are made
by oracles and the supernatural beings acting
through them. It is no longer parties with differing
programs and leaders who face off in the political
arena, but rather distinct and antagonistic oracle
gods.
Above all it is in the individual
of the Dalai Lama that the entire wordly and spiritual/magic
potential of the Tibetan world view is concentrated.
According to tradition he is a sacred
king. All his deeds, however much they are perceived
in terms of practical politics by his surroundings,
are thus profoundly linked to the Tibetan mysteries.
The latter have always been shrouded
in secrecy. The uninitiated have no right to participate
or learn about them. Nevertheless, in recent years
much information about the Tibetan cults (recorded
in the so-called tantra texts and their commentaries)
has been published and translated into European
languages. The world that opens itself here to
Western awareness appears equally fantastic and
fascinating. This world is a combination of theatrical
pomp, medieval magic, sacred sexuality, relentless
asceticism, supreme deification and the basest
abuse of women, murderous crimes, maximum ethical
demands, the appearance of gods and demons, mystical
ecstasy, and cold hard logic all in one powerful,
paradoxical performance.
Note on the cited literature:
The original documents which we
cite are without exception European-language translations
from Sanskrit, Tibetan or Chinese, or are drawn
from Western sources. By now, so many relevant
texts have been translated that they provide an
adequate scholarly basis for a culturally critical
examination of Tibetan Buddhism without the need
to refer to documents in the original language.
For our study , the Kalachakra Tantra is central.
This has not been translated in its entirety,
aside from an extremely problematical handwritten
manuscript by the German Tibetoligist, Albert
Grünwedel, which can be found in the Bavarian
State Library in Munich. Important parts of the
Sri Kalachakra have been translated
into English by John Roland Newman, along with
a famous commentary on these parts by Pundarika
known as the Vimalaphraba. (John
Ronald Newman - The
outer wheel of time: Vajrayana buddhist cosmology
in the Kalacakra Tantra – Vimalaprabhā
- nāmamūlatantrānusāriņī-dvādaśasāhasrikālagukālacakratantrarājaţīkā
) Madison 1987)
The Sri Kalachakra (Laghukalachakratantra)
is supposed to be the abridgement of a far more
comprehensive original text by the name of Sekoddesha. The complete text
has been lost — but some important passages from
it have been preserved and have been commented
upon by the renowned scholar Naropa (10th century).
An Italian translation of the commentary by Ranieri
Gnoli and Giacomella Orofino is available. Further
to this, we have studied every other work on the
Kalachakra Tantra which we
have been able to find in a Western language.
We were thuis in a position to be able to adequately
reconstruct the contents of the “Time Tantra”
from the numerous translated commentaries and
sources for a cultural historical (and not a philological)
assessment of the tantra. This extensive literature
is listed at the end of the book. In order to
make the intentions and methods of this religious
system comprehensible for a Western audience,
a comparision with other tantras and with parallels
in European culture is of greater importance than
a meticulous linguistic knowledge of every line
in the Sanskrit or Tibetan original.
In the interests of readability,
we have transliterated Tibetan and Sanskrit names
without diacritical marks and in this have primarily
oriented ourselves to Anglo-Saxon usages.
Footnotes:
[4] Up
until 1996 the West needed to be divided into
two factions — with the eloquent advocates of
Tibetan Buddhism on the one hand, and those who
were completely ignorant of the issue and remained
silent on the other. In contrast, modern or “postmodern”
cultural criticisms of the Buddhist teachings
and critical examinations of the Tibetan clergy
and the Tibetan state structure were extremely
rare (completely the opposite of the case of the
literature which addresses the Pope and the Catholic
Church). Noncommitted and unfalsified analyses
and interpretations of Buddhist or Tibetan history,
in brief open and truth-seeking confrontations
with the shady side of the “true faith” and its
history, have to be sought out like needles in
a haystack of ideological glorifications and deliberately
constructed myths of history. For this reason
those who attempted to discover and reveal the
hidden background have had to battle to swim against
a massive current of resistance based on pre-formed
opinions and deliberate manipulation. This situation
has changed in the period since 1996.
[6] There
is nonetheless an occult correlation between
“symbolic and ritual politics” and real political
events. Thus the Tibetan lamas believe they
are justified in subsuming the pre-existing
social reality (including that of the West)
into their magical world view and subjecting
it to their “irrational” methods. With a for
a contemporary awareness audacious seeming thought
construction, they see in the processes of world
history not just the work of politicians, the
military, and business leaders, but declare
these to be the lackeys of divine or demonic
powers.
First Chapter:
1. BUDDHISM AND MISOGYNY
(AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW)
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